In a double-blind and placebo-controlled study Belluzzi et al. observed the effect of fish-oil supplementation on Crohn's disease. The study concerned a group of patients who at the start of the project were all in a remission period of this intestinal disorder. In the one-year study it became evident that the fish-oil preparation offered significant protection against the relapse of the disease.

50% Of the 78 patients participating in the study were treated with a placebo and the other 50% with a specific enteric-coated fish-oil preparation. The daily fish-oil supplementation consisted of 9 capsules, providing a total of 2.7 gram omega-3 fatty acids, to with 1.8 gram EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and 0.9 gram DHA (docosahexaenoic acid).

The disease activity was evaluated at the start of the project as well as during the research period by means of the Crohn's Disease Activity Index. A statistically significant protective effect of the fish-oil supplement was recorded.

In the placebo group a greater number of patients were shown to have relapses compared to the group receiving the supplementation. After one year 59% of the patients taking the fish-oil capsules, were still in remission, whereas this percentage in the placebo group was only 26%.

The therapeutic effect of fish oil in Crohn's disease is chiefly attributed to the inflammation-inhibiting properties of this nutritional supplement. The study indeed established that the laboratory tests, indicating the existence of an inflammatory process, such as an increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), had been significantly reduced in the fish-oil group in comparison with the placebo group.

It is further important to note that because of a beneficial influence on intestinal cell growth, the fish-oil supplementation may lead to the increase of the intestinal mucosal surface area, thereby increasing the absorption of nutrients and improving the nutritional status of the patient.

(Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease; Belluzzi A et al. (Institute of Clinical Medicine and Gastroenterology, University of Bologna, Italy); New England Journal of Medicine, 334(24):1557-1560, 1996 June 13)

Pregnant women consuming a greater quantity of omega-3 fatty acids have a decreased risk of pre-eclampsia, as has been shown in an American case-control study, in which 22 expectant mothers with this disorder and 40 others with a normal blood pressure participated.

In the United States preeclampsia is one of the most prevalent pregnancy complications, claiming a third place in the mother's cause of death. Preeclampsia is also an important cause of preterm delivery, and of growth retardation and perinatal mortality in the child.

This pregnancy complication, which is clinically characterized by hypertension, proteinuria and edema, is a systemic disorder, which among other things is accompanied by hyperlipidemia, increased peripheral vascular resistance, coagulation abnormalities and dysfunction of the endothelium.

From the point of view of nutritional prevention of these disorders, it is of the utmost importance that fish oil, being a rich provider of omega-3 fatty acids, is capable of lowering triglyceride levels, decreasing blood pressure, and reducing platelet reactivity. Omega-3 fatty acids may also exert a beneficial influence on vascular walls. As a biomarker for the dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids, the concentration of these substances in the erythrocytes was determined in the above mentioned study.

It was found that the group of women who were in the lowest tertile of erythrocyte omega-3 fatty-acid concentration, the risk of preeclampsia was 7.6 times higher than in women in the highest tertile. Furthermore it was found that when the levels of omega-3 fatty acids increased compared to the levels of omega-6 fatty acids, the risk of preeclampsia decreased. A 15% increase in the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids was accompanied by a 46% risk reduction.

The favorable influence of omega-3 fatty acids is attributed, among other things, to the fact that these nutrients have an inhibiting influence on the biological activity of thromboxane, a substance which, among other things, is a potent vasoconstrictor. This decrease in thromboxane activity is due to the fact that thromboxane A3, (derived from omega-3 fatty acids), is physiologically less active than the thromboxane A2, (derived from omega-6 fatty acids).

Consequently a greater consumption of omega-3 fatty acids and a higher ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids reduce the tendency to vasoconstriction. (The risk of preeclampsia is likely to be further reduced if, in addition to the omega-3 fatty acids, an antioxidant supplement is taken. The reason being, that, according to the authors, preeclampsia is associated with excessive lipid peroxidation and with a lack of antioxidants, but in this study this aspect is not elucidated further. Ed.)

(Omega-3 fatty acids in maternal erythrocytes and risk of preeclampsia; Williams MA et al. (Center for Perinatal Studies, Swedish Medical Center/Seattle, WA, USA); Epidemiology, 6(3):232-237, 1995 May)

In a double-blind placebo-controlled study among a group of girls suffering from dysmenorrhea, it was found that the symptoms could be significantly reduced by dietary supplementation with the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). These fatty acids were administered as a fish oil preparation.

The study was held among 42 adolescents with the symptoms of dysmenorrhea, 37 of whom completed the four-month research procedure. The trial subjects, in the age group of 15-18 years, were divided into two groups, which according to a cross-over system during two months were given a fish-oil supplement and during two months a placebo. One group started with the placebo and switched to fish oil after two months. The other group during the first two months took twice a day the fish-oil supplement, followed by the placebo for another two months.

The supplementation of fish oil consisted of a daily dosage of 1080 mg EPA, 720 mg DHA and 1.5 mg vitamin E. The menstruation-related symptoms were measured by means of the Cox Menstrual Symptom Scale questionnaire, that provides information about the severity as well as the frequency of the 18 different symptoms.

It was found that the use of the fish-oil supplementation reduced the symptoms considerably. The mean score on the Cox Menstrual Symptom Scale, which at the start of the study was 69.9, had been reduced to 44.4 after a 2-month fish-oil supplementation, which is a statistically very significant difference. The use of the placebo had no significant influence on the score.

(Supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the management of dysmenorrhea in adolescents; Harel Z et al. (Division of Adolescent Medicine, Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA); American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 174(4):1335-1338, 1996 April)

Experiments performed on animals and clinical studies have demonstrated that the omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) in fish oil have a favorable influence on a variety of kidney disorders.

The effectiveness is ascribed to the multifaceted biological effect of these fatty acids.

Clinical studies conducted so far show positive results of these fatty acids, in particular in immunoglobulin A nephropathy and kidney damage induced by the immunosuppressive remedy cyclosporine. This can be concluded from an article, supported by 233 references, which was published in the American Journal of Kidney Diseases.

Some of the favorable effects of omega-3 fatty acids specifically important in the prevention and treatment of kidney diseases are among others: vasodilatation, inhibition of inflammatory reactions, decrease of platelet aggregation and a reduction of blood viscosity.

The ability of these fatty acids to decrease the plasma concentration of triglycerides is also extremely valuable. The reason being that in patients with chronic kidney diseases the triglyceride levels are often high, which increases the risk of cardiovascular disorders.

Furthermore it is important that omega-3 fatty acids can lower the blood pressure. Kidney diseases can sometimes cause blood pressure to rise, which in its turn may aggravate the particular renal disorder.

Hypertension is often found in immunoglobulin A nephropathy, one of the most frequent chronic glomerular diseases, often resulting in end-stage renal failure. A prospective study conducted by Donadio etal. showed that fish oil has a beneficial influence on the blood pressure, the triglyceride level and the platelet aggregation in patients with this disorder. Furthermore an improvement in renal function and a significant reduction of the proteinuria have been noted. Also in other glomerular disorders, as demonstrated among other things in a study conducted by De Caterina et al., the omega-3 supplementation has been found to reduce urinary protein secretion.

The protective qualities of omega-3 fatty acids on kidneys are also very important in people who are treated with cyclosporine. Kidney damage frequently occurs when this nephrotoxic immunosuppressivum is used to suppress autoimmune diseases and to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs. This may in particular cause problems in people who have received a donor kidney.

A supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids, however, can limit the damage considerably, as is evident from various clinical studies. In 29 patients who after a kidney transplantation were treated with cyclosporine, the donor-organ functioned better in the group of people receiving next to cyclosporine a fish-oil supplementation than in the group which did not use the nutritional supplement, as was determined 3 and 12 months after the transplantation.

A similar result was found in another, double-blind and placebo-controlled study, in which 66 kidney- transplant patients participated. After one year the group which after the surgery was administered a fish-oil supplement next to the immunosuppressive medication, was in a better condition that the control group. Among the favorable effects of the omega-3 fatty acids found in the verum group were a higher glomerular filtration rate and a higher effective renal plasma flow.

(N-3 fatty acids and renal diseases; De Caterina R et al. (CNR Institute of Clinical Physiology, Pisa, Italy); American Journal of Kidney Diseases, 24(3):397-415, 1994 Sep.)

In a study supported by 146 references Hibbeln and Salem underline the hypothesis that an omega-3 fatty acid deficiency encourages the onset of depressions, and that an adequate provision of these nutrients contributes to the prevention of this type of disorder.

Point of departure for the authors' hypothesis was a number of publications which would illustrate that programs designed to lower the cholesterol level would lead to more cases of depression and suicide. According to Hibbeln and Salem, however, this relation is not based on the lower cholesterol level as such but on the fact that cholesterol-reducing diets are often accompanied by a reduced dietary ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids. This leads to a lowering of the omega-3 fatty acid concentration in body tissues, reducing at the same time the amount of DHA (docosahexaenoic acid, C22:6 n-3) in the brain.

If this highly unsaturated omega-3 fatty acid, which is an essential part of the neuronal cell membranes, is replaced by an omega-6 fatty acid, changes in the membrane properties may occur, which increase the vulnerability to depression, as is elucidated by the authors.

To support their hypothesis Hibbeln and Salem refer among other things to various epidemiological studies, demonstrating that a higher consumption of omega-3 fatty acids correlates with a decreasing rate of depression.

According to the authors there is also a possible relation between the fact that in the course of this century the lifetime risk of depression for people in North America has increased and the fact that as a consequence of modern agricultural methods the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids in the diet has decreased.

(Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: when cholesterol does not satisfy; Hibbeln JR, Salem N jr (Laboratory of Membrane Biophysics and Biochemistry, DICBR, National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Rockville, MD, USA); American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62(1):1- 9, 1995 July)

In a 12-month randomized double-blind study the influence of 2 different dosages of omega-3 fatty acids (2.6 and 1.3 gram a day) were compared with placebo in a group of 90 patients with rheumatoid arthritis.

In the group consuming 2.6 gram omega-3 fatty acids a significant clinical improvement was noted. In this group, the proportion of patients who were able to reduce their conventional antirheumatic medication was also significantly greater.

The daily supplementation received by group 1 consisted of 6 gram fish oil (with 2.6 gram omega-3 fatty acids). The second group received 3 gram fish oil (with 1.3 gram omega-3 fatty acids) plus 3 gram placebo (olive oil). The third group received 6 gram placebo only. About two-third of the omega-3 fatty acids in the fish-oil preparation consisted of the nutrient EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which, in an earlier study conducted by Kremer et al., had been proven to be effective in rheumatoid arthritis.

All patients participating in the study suffered from active rheumatoid arthritis and had been treated, for at least three months prior to study entry, with a stable dosage of NSAIDs (nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs) and/or DMARDs (disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs).

With regards to various evaluation criteria, the percentage of patients, in which an improvement was found, was significantly greater in the group being treated with 2.6 gram omega-3 fatty acids a day. In this group, but not in the group receiving only 1.3 gram omega-3 fatty acids a day, a statistically significant improvement was found in the patient's global assessment of disease activity.

Also the pain score assessed by the physician improved significantly. In this group there was also a considerable number of patients, namely 47%, in which the conventional antirheumatic medication could be reduced. In the group of patients having received only 1.3 gram omega-3 fatty acids, the reduction in the need for antirheumatic medication was not significant.

It is furthermore worth mentioning that in all three groups a distinct reduction was noted in the number of painful joints. In the placebo group this ameliora-tion is possibly due to olive oil not being a true placebo. By its high percentage of unsaturated (mainly monounsaturated) fatty acids, olive oil could display clinical efficacy to a certain extent. (Which at the same time implies that the results in this study obtained with omega-3 fatty acids could possibly have been even better, if a biologically totally inactive placebo had been used. Ed.)

(Long-term effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis, a 12-month, double-blind, controlled study; Geusens P et al. (Arthritis and Metabolic Bone Disease Research Unit, K.U. Leuven, U.Z. Pellenberg, Belgium); Arthritis & Rheumatism, 37(6):824-829, 1994 June)

Please refer to our other Web pages devoted to orthomolecular research for more information on the subject of omega-3 fatty acids (also called n-3 fatty acids). Below you will find a short description, plus a link to the page concerned. More n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: less risk of a primary cardiac arrest.

An American case-control study determined that people who consume monthly quantities of seafood containing a total of 5,5 grams of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, (corresponding with one meal of fat fish a week), have 50% less chance of a primary cardiac arrest than people whose daily menu does not contain these fatty acids. You will find this article on the SOE page "Orthomolecular control of cardiovascular disorders".

A recent article in Bottom-Line Tomorrow by James Scala, PhD June 97 volume 5 number 6, , says that "If you have arthritis and think drugs are your only hope, think again. When scrupulously followed, a surprisingly simple diet plan has reduced arthritis symptoms for people all over the world. At least 15 major clinical studies have shown that this dietary approach works effectively."

In his article Scala states that it is possible to be able to throw away or reduce the use of non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, (common arthritis medications). He says that this is a particularly positive course of action considering the postential side effects from most of the arthritic drugs on the market today, & since their long term use can have disastrous results.

He said that, "if you go on this diet, your arthritis discomfort should begin to abate within a couple of weeks. Important: It will be three months before the diet has its full impact."

Scala states that it is the balance between hormone- like substances that your body cells make. Those are called prostaglandin. He says you must increase the omega-3 fatty acids found almost entirely in the oils of fish and sea animals. This decreases the harmful prostaglandin. Avoid fried and battered fish. Order baked, poached, or broiled. He said that the good hormone (EPA) known as eicosapentaenoic acid is what we need to increase and the only way to do that is to eat more like a vegetarian but include fish in the diet. We suggests that we eat no more than a red meat meal per month, and then only lean venison or lean beefs. And stay away from frozen cooked fish. They counter the positive results of the fish.

He says that not only does it help to eliminate the arthritic pain, but "it also inhibits the production of arterial plaque that leads to heart disease and stroke."

He states that Excellent sources of omega-3 oils are... Fish, especially Excellent: Salmon, herring, mackerel. Good: Bluefish, smelt, tuna, whitefish. Fish Oil Supplements... sold in health food stores and in our Higher Ideals catalog under the name ENHANCER. Flaxseed oil...sold at health food stores and is an ingredient in our ENHANCER product, says that "it is a powerhouse oil which your body converts to EPA, is tasteless, golden yellow and easily added to foods such as hot or cold cereal, salad dressing, tuna salad or juice. One tablespoon or three capsules of flaxseed oil is equivalent to a one-gram EPA capsule."

Scala says that the goal should be to take at least 3 grams of EPA every day. Five is better. He mentioned that chicken should have the skin removed and is ok occasionally. Rabbit and venison are OK but avoid all other meats. Cut back on milk and eggs except for skim milk and egg whites. He urges using tofu as a protein substitute on occassion.

Also he cautions that the night shade plants like tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant and red and green peppers can cause inflammation for many sufferers. So experiment around to see if these plants cause inflammation and if they do eliminate them as much as possible from your diet.

Weight is also a major problem for sufferers. Less weight puts less strain on the joints. Losing weight may also help migraine headaches, Crohn's disease and multiple sclerosis. No one know why this is true however. He suggests making sure you have enough vitamin C and fiber in your diet also. But drink lots of water if you use a fiber supplements.

Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints and surrounding tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Among the oldest known afflictions of human beings, it can affect virtually every part of the body: from the feet, to the knees, back, shoulders, and fingers. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), arthritis effects range from slight pain, stiffness and swelling of the joints to crippling and disability. There are three primary types of arthritis: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gout.